By Ruediger Paschotta
Fiber optics became one of many crucial components of recent optical know-how. Early paintings has regularly desirous about the transmission of sunshine over lengthy distances, relatively to be used in optical fiber communications. extra paintings has significantly extended the appliance parts of optical fibers, which now additionally contain fields like fiber amplifiers, fiber lasers, supercontinuum iteration, pulse compression, and fiber-optic sensors. This variety of purposes has been enabled by means of numerous kinds of optical fibers, which could drastically range in lots of respects.
This box advisor presents an summary of optical fiber know-how. It not just describes many differing kinds of fibers and their houses, but additionally provides in a compact shape the proper actual foundations. refined arithmetic, e.g., pertaining to fiber modes, are usually not integrated, as such concerns are lined intimately by way of numerous textbooks. either passive and energetic (amplifying) fibers are mentioned, and an summary on fiber nonlinearities and the appliance of energetic fibers in amplifiers and lasers is incorporated. the massive bibliography includes many helpful references, overlaying either pioneering paintings and later seminal articles and books. This consultant can be very helpful for a large viewers, together with practitioners in in addition to researchers.
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Example text
If some longer-wavelength signal is injected together with the pump, and the frequency difference fits some part of the vibration spectrum, the signal can be amplified via stimulated Raman scattering. Here, the growth rate of the signal intensity Is is proportional to the existing signal intensity and to the pump intensity Ip: Is g R I p Is z where gR is the Raman gain coefficient (dependent on the material and the frequency offset) and z is the coordinate along the beam direction. As each added signal photon implies the loss of one pump photon, the pump intensity is reduced: λ I p gR s I p Is λp z where the ratio of wavelengths takes into account the difference of photon energies.
Instead, one can set up a more complicated differential equation involving a Raman response function. Stimulated Raman scattering in fibers is mainly used in low-noise Raman amplifiers for telecom signals and in Raman fiber lasers, allowing conversion of optical power to somewhat longer wavelengths. The transmission fiber itself may be used for a distributed Raman amplifier, where amplification occurs over a length of tens of kilometers. Unwanted Raman gain can occur in fiber amplifiers for short and ultrashort pulses.
Even complete temporal separation of polarization components can occur, and such effects can limit the data rate of a telecom system. The broadening (or splitting) occurs because the group delay of some fiber span depends on the input polarization. The difference of group delay between the two principal states of polarization is called the differential group delay (DGD). , as a result of temperature changes. For broadband signals, PMD can introduce a pulse chirp similar to that which occurs due to chromatic dispersion.